INTRODUCTION

• Need help with your term paper?

• Don't know where to start?

• Trying to figure out how to do an outline?

• Don't know how to do a bibliography?

These are some of the questions this guide - a short overview of the common steps used in writing a term paper - is designed to answer. You should have received guidelines from your instructor on writing the term paper for your particular class. Review those guidelines carefully, and follow them! Ask your instructor to clarify anything that you don't understand and to assist you if you are having any difficulties.

If due dates are assigned for particular steps in the research and writing process, be sure to begin the required tasks far enough in advance to complete them on time. The time to begin your research is when the paper is assigned, not a few days before it is due. To help keep track of due dates and your progress, use this Term Paper Checklist. Add additional course requirements to this list as needed, or skip steps that are not needed.

Remember, this is only a general guide; you must fulfill the requirements as set by your instructor, not by this guide.

THE TERM PAPER PROCESS

Writing a research paper is a process that will result in a completed paper. This process, from selecting your topic through revising and proofreading, is covered step-by-step in this guide. If you approach your assignment taking each of these steps one at a time, it will not seem so overwhelming.

SELECTING AND LIMITING YOUR TOPIC

Choosing the topic for your paper is your first priority. Often, your instructor will:

• assign a topic for you,
• let you select from a list of approved topics, or
• provide guidelines on the general subject area that you are to investigate.

If you have a choice in selecting the topic, do your paper on something that interests you. Researching a topic that you are interested in or curious about will make this an adventure in learning, not just an academic chore you must complete to get a grade.

After selecting your topic, you will need to determine whether it is too broad or too narrow and then limit or expand it accordingly. You do not want to research a topic that is too broad because you will find too much information. On the other hand, a topic that is too narrow may result in not finding enough information to be able to complete your paper. If needed, your topic can be restricted by factors such as period of time, geographic location, or social or political boundaries. Notice the progression from general to specific in the following topics. It may be helpful to map out your topic in the same way when trying to narrow it.

Example 1:

• Crime
• African Americans and Crime
• African American Males and Crime
• African American Males and the American Criminal Justice System

Example 2:

• Higher Education
• Higher Education in the United States
• Historically Black Colleges & Universities (HBCUs)
• Closings and Mergers of HBCUs

You will also need to decide upon the purpose of your paper. This will help to focus your research on your topic. Consider the following questions:

• Is it to INFORM?
• Is it to SHOW PROGRESS?
• Is it to ANALYZE or REPORT an event, a situation, or a time period?
• Is it to INVESTIGATE a problem?
• Is it to PERSUADE or RECOMMEND a point of view?

Once you have decided what you are trying to accomplish with your research paper, you will have a better idea about the type of information you need to find. If you are trying to inform your reader about a topic, you will need to find information that covers all the important aspects of the subject. If your paper is to persuade, you will need facts and statistics that show why your viewpoint is the best one.

PRELIMINARY READING & WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY

Preliminary reading is probably the most overlooked step in the research process, but it is very important. You should know something about your topic before developing your thesis. This reading will also tell you if you need to broaden or narrow your topic due to the abundance or scarcity of materials available.

Try to find a few general sources that give an overview of your topic. If possible, find your topic in a general encyclopedia (e.g., Encyclopaedia Britannica, World Book) or in a specialized encyclopedia (e.g., The Social Science Encyclopedia, The Encyclopedia of Religion). Their articles can give you an idea of how to approach the subject. Then review a few specific sources (i.e., books, articles) that might reveal some additional details. These sources will become the start of your working bibliography, which is nothing more than a list of sources you have looked at that contain information on your topic. As you are researching your topic, add sources to your working bibliography when you find them. Most of these sources will probably be used in your paper and referred to on your works cited or reference page, but some will not be used and therefore be discarded. If your instructor requires a bibliography in addition to a list of all works cited, you can then include all of the sources you have reviewed (consult your instructor for clarification on this).

DEVELOPING YOUR THESIS

Your thesis should be a one-sentence statement that you will attempt to defend or clarify in your paper, based on your research and original thought. Both the following thesis statements provide a topic and an opinion or point of view that must be supported:

• Juvenile criminals should not face trial in the adult court system.

• American jazz is the first form of popular music to be enjoyed on all five inhabited continents.

Remember that the information you find while doing your research may require you to modify or clarify your thesis so that you can adequately support it.

OUTLINE PREPARATION

An outline may or may not be required by your instructor as part of the research process, but it is highly recommended that you prepare one in either case. An outline sets forth the logical structure of your paper by presenting the main point of you paper with supporting information for each point.

Creating an outline is a process. Your outline is started during the preliminary reading and thesis formulation stages and modified throughout the research process, only reaching its final form when you are ready to write the paper. Remember, you will be planning your outline as you make decisions concerning the organization of your thoughts, grouping related ideas into a logical order. Then it is simply a matter of writing it down.

Follow these steps to develop your outline:

1. While reading, try to anticipate the important questions your paper will need to answer. Write these questions down.
2. While formulating your thesis statement, write down the major divisions in your ideas.
3. Write your outline by combining and arranging your questions and major divisions into a logical order.
4. While reading and note taking, focus on finding information that shows why each main point listed in your outline is true and/or significant. As your reading suggests new points to be made, insert them into the outline where appropriate. If you find that some of your ideas cannot be used or adequately supported, remove them from the outline.

Outline Formats

There are three basic outline formats: the topic outline, the sentence outline, and the combined outline. Use only one outline format, and be consistent. If an outline is required by your instructor, you must complete it as required by the assignment. Remember, these examples are only guides. If you have any questions, ask your instructor for clarification or assistance.

The Topic Outline

In a topic outline, each main point and supporting idea to be discussed in the paper is briefly noted. For example, an outline for a paper on the pros and cons of television commercials might look like this:

The Pros and Cons of Television Commercials

1. Necessary
   1. To pay for broadcasts
   2. To sell the sponsor's products
2. Irritating
   1. Because of repetitions
   2. Because of program breaks

The Sentence Outline

A sentence outline is often clearer than a topic outline, because each statement is a complete sentence which provides more detail and meaning. Compare this sentence outline with the topic outline above:

The Pros and Cons of Television Commercials

1. Television commercials are a necessary part of the television industry.
   1. Program sponsors pay for the broadcasts.
   2. Commercials are used to sell the sponsor's products.
2. Television commercials are irritating to the viewer.
   1. Television viewers are exposed to constant repetition.
   2. Program interruptions are too frequent.

The Combined Outline

Although not used as frequently as topic and sentence outlines, the combined outline is often useful. The main points are usually written in sentence form, while the supporting ideas are in topic form. A combined outline is provided below as an example.

The Pros and Cons of Television Commercials

1. Television commercials are a necessary part of the television industry.
   1. To pay for broadcasts
   2. To sell the sponsor's products
2. Television commercials are irritating to the viewer.
   1. Because of repetitions
   2. Because of program breaks

NOTE TAKING

Once you have completed your preliminary reading and basic outline, you are ready to begin taking notes. Do this while you are reading your sources; it is the only way to keep track of where the information came from.

Many instructors encourage (or require) note taking on index cards. Typically, a "source card" is kept for each book or article and includes all of the information needed for the works cited, reference, or bibliography page (see Style Guides). In the same way, a "note card" is used for each quote, fact, or idea. Notes can be direct quotations, paraphrases, or short summaries of what you have read; or they can be your own thoughts and reactions to what you are reading. Make sure that each note card refers to only one source card. Put either the number of the source card or the author's name in the corner of each note card. Also include the page number where you found the information.

If your instructor does not require note cards, use whatever note taking method you are comfortable with. Other methods include taking notes in a notebook or on a computer or photocopying material and making notes directly on the copy. The method is not as important as accuracy: always keep accurate notes!

WRITING YOUR PAPER

Writing your first draft may be thought of as filling in your outline. The outline provides the structure for your ideas and conclusions. But filling in the outline is more than just mentioning a topic and copying down the notes that go with each one. You also need to make sure that your are clearly and logically explaining your arguments, and not merely setting out the facts, leaving the reader to draw their own conclusions as to why you have included certain information.

Following your outline, write an introductory paragraph that states your thesis and mentions the major points you intend to make. In the body of the paper, cover each main idea in its own paragraph (or several paragraphs depending on the depth of coverage), and include the information that supports each. End your paper with a solid concluding paragraph that ties together all of the major points mentioned in the body of the paper. You can also restate your thesis or provide your own thoughts and opinions on the data presented in your conclusion.

REVISING, EDITING, AND PROOFREADING

Revising, editing, and proofreading are essential! You should not hand in your paper without revising it at least once. Perhaps the point to keep in mind is that revision literally means "re-seeing." Review your paper completely. Do all of your main points support your thesis? Check your paper against your outline, making sure that you have covered each point as planned. Does the paper flow smoothly from one paragraph to the next? If possible, have several other people read it and get their advice. If you have time, set the paper aside for a day or two and then re-read it critically looking for anything you may have missed.

An easy way to edit is to mark changes you want to make as you read through your paper. Then you are ready to write your second draft. If this draft gets the paper to the point you want it, the next step is to proofread it, otherwise follow the edit/revise process described above to create a third draft.

Proofreading--the last step in the term paper process--is simply looking for spelling, grammatical, and formatting errors. Often it is helpful to read your paper out loud to find awkward or incomplete phrases and sentences. Don't trust the spell check feature on your word processing program to catch all misspelled words. What you typed may spell something that is in the dictionary but is not the word you intended. Carefully review the style guide (MLA, APA, etc. Brief guides to the MLA and APA styles are provided in Style Guides) that you are following to ensure that your paper is formatted properly and that your citations and references are correct. After you have proofread your paper and corrected all errors, your paper is ready to be handed in.

DOCUMENTING YOUR SOURCES

Documenting your sources is essential in order to identify the material that you used in your research. You cannot claim credit or imply ownership of material that is written by someone else. If you do, you may be guilty of plagiarism, a serious violation of the Student Code of Conduct, which may result in expulsion from WSSU. Proper documentation also ensures that your reader can locate the source material to examine for himself.

FOOTNOTES, ENDNOTES, CITATIONS WITHIN TEXT

Your instructor should specify whether to use footnotes, endnotes, or citations within the text. Footnotes are used to identify source material at the bottom of the page on which it is cited, while endnotes are included at the end of the paper. An abbreviated method of identifying sources is citations within text. A brief parenthetical statement is inserted after the source material in the text (usually only identifying the author, date, and/or page number). The reader then looks for the complete citation on the works cited, reference, or bibliography page. Some of the style guides prefer one method to another. If you have a choice (confirm this with your instructor!), use citations within text, as it eliminates the additional work of creating footnote or endnote entries.

Some of the style guides prefer one method to another. If you have the choice (confirm this with your instructor!), use citations within text, as it eliminates the additional work of creating footnote or endnote entries.

WORKS CITED, REFERENCES, AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Your instructor may require a works cited or reference list, a bibliography, or both. These terms are often used interchangeably, but there is a slight difference. A works cited or reference list contains only those items that are referred to in your paper. A bibliography, on the other hand, will contain all sources that you consulted that contain information on your topic, whether you refer to them in your paper or not. Ask your instructor for specific guidance on what to include in your works cited, reference, or bibliography page.

STYLE GUIDES

There are many different styles of documentation. Use the style that is specified by your instructor! These major style guides are available in O'Kelly Library:

• American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 4th ed. Washington, DC: APA, 1994.
• ASA Style Guide. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1997.
• The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1993.
• Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 5th ed. New York: MLA, 1999.
• Lister, Marilyn J., comp. Style Manual for Physical Therapy: Editorial Style and Manuscript Preparation. Alexandria: American Physical Therapy Assn., 1985.
• Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers. 6th ed. New York: Cambridge UP, 1994.
• Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed. Rev. John Grossman and Alice Bennett. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996.
• United Press International. UPI Stylebook: The Authoritative Handbook for Writers, Editors, & News Directors. 3rd ed. Lincolnwood: Natl. Textbook, 1992.

If a particular style is not required, choose either the MLA or APA style, as these are the most common guides used for academic work at WSSU.

MLA STYLE

The Modern Language Association (MLA) publishes the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers to assist scholars and students with careful documentation in their writing. It is primarily used for research in the humanities. Always consult the handbook if you have any questions. A copy is available at the Reference Desk.

For information on formatting your paper and examples of the MLA style for use in works cited lists and Bibliographies, visit the MLA - Quick Style Guide. Consult the MLA Handbook for detailed information.

APA STYLE

The American Psychological Association (APA) provides guidelines in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association to assist psychology scholars and students with careful documentation in their research. Other fields, primarily in the Social Sciences also use it. Always consult the manual if you have any questions. A copy is available at the Reference Desk.

For information on formatting your paper and examples of the APA style for use in a reference list, visit the APA - Quick Style Guide. For more detailed information, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TERM PAPER WRITING RESOURCES

This brief list of books is included to give you a place to start for finding more information on writing term papers. These books can be found in O'Kelly Library, but you must use the online catalog to get the call numbers and locations to retrieve them.

Axelrod, Rise B., and Charles R. Cooper. "Research Strategies." The St. Martin's Guide to Writing. 4th ed. New York: St. Martin's, 1994. 555-621.

Colwell, C. Carter, and James H. Knox. The Complete Term Paper. Reston: Reston, 1974.

Hunt, Douglas. The Riverside Guide to Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991.

Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide. 3rd ed. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1980.

Rosen, Leonard J., and Laurence Behrens. "Writing the Research Paper." The Allyn & Bacon Handbook. 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1994. 542-653.

Sorenson, Sharon. How to Write Research Papers. New York: Macmillan, 1995.